Explain Kants Ethical theories Essay Example for Free

Explain Kants Ethical theories Essay Kant’s ethical theory is an absolute and deontological theory. This means that humans are seeking the ultimate end called the supreme good also known as the ‘summon Bonnum’. Kant says that morality is a categorical imperative, this is a duty which must always be obeyed in all possible situations. A categorical imperative is what is needed to find what is right or wrong. Kant argued that to act morally is to do one’s duty, and one’s duty is to obey the moral law. Kant also believe that there was no room for emotion. Kant believe that categorical imperative helps us to know which actions are obligatory and which are forbidden. There are three principles within the categorical imperatives these include Universal law, Treat humans as ends In themselves and Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends. Universal law is putting minority views first. If it is wrong for one person than it is wrong for everyone. An action must not be carried out unless the person believes that the same situation all people would act in the same way. Treat humans as ends in themselves is respecting a person. This means that you can never use human beings for another purpose or to exploit or enslave them, this is because humans are the highest point of creation and demand unique treatment. Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends, this means treat all with respect. Kant believed that all of these helped to create ‘maxims’. A maxim is an absolute moral statement about a universal truth. For example a maxim: Murder is wrong. Therefore it is a universal rule that murdering anyone is wrong. Kant believes that we can only be true moral agents if we are free to make our own decisions. He argues that our freedom to make rational choices is what separates us from animals. He says that is you can do something, you should be able to do something, and if you cannot do something it is unfair to be asked. E.g. it is unfair to ask someone in a wheelchair to run a marathon.

Dance Injury - Hamstrings Essay Example for Free

Dance Injury Hamstrings Essay Dance is an art form. Professional dancers pride themselves for being able to express complicated emotions through the artistic interpretation of movements. Like athletics, dancers are very prone to physical injury, that is, their work requires intense physical training in which often result in mild or severe injuries. This essay will attempt to investigate and understand what is the hamstring strain or tear injury, how it occurs, and ways to prevent such injury. A dance piece is constituted with a variety of movements displayed by the human body. One of the primary functions of the skeletal system is to provide support and shape while the muscular system is to provide a range of movements by moving the different limbs of the body. Therefore, the kinesiology muscle of a dancer that directs the leg into amazing moves is complicated. The hamstring muscle group consist of three muscle; the Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, and the Semimembranosus. The hamstring muscle group is located at the back of the thigh. According to â€Å"The Anatomy of Exercise and Movement†, the Bicep Femoris is the largest and most lateral of the three hamstring muscles. It has ‘the long head’ and ‘the short head’ making it a bicep muscle. Its primary purpose is to contract, consequently helping in hip outward rotation. As for the other two hamstring muscles, the Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus are completely synergistic, doing the same actions together. Working at the hip, both muscles extend and are active in internal rotation (pg.144). All three muscles in the hamstring muscle group have the same origin, which is the Ischial Tuberosity, also known as the sitz bone, situated at the bottom of the pelvis bone. Even though the F asdf asdf asdf asdf asdf asdf asdf hamstring muscle group have same origins, each muscle has a different insertion, the Bicep Femoris; the head of Fibula (bone) and the lateral of Tibia (bone), Semitendinosus; proximal of Tibia, medial to Tebial Tuberosity, Semimembranosus; Tibia. The hamstring muscle group helps in extending the leg backwards and bending the knees. Hence, this specific group muscle helps in producing dance movements namely ‘plies’, ‘passe’, ‘attitude devant’, and ‘arabesque’. The hamstring strain or tear injury can be a pull, a partial tear or a complete tear of the muscle. The strain or tear is to be found at the peak of elongation velocity when producing movements. This injury occurs when the hamstring muscle group is ‘strain’ beyond its normal length whilst producing a certain eccentric contraction movement. A strain or tear can also happen when the muscles are challenged with a sudden load or work to produce a movement or several movements. â€Å"A common problem in dancers is imbalance or asymmetry that can result in hamstring injury. The imbalance could be muscular or structural.† (livestrong.com). An example of such imbalance is when a dancer is dancing with a tilted pelvis. This can result to an over emphasis on the quadriceps muscles and only stretching the hamstring group muscles. Livestrong.com continue to name a list of reason how the hamstring group muscle can be injured when a dancer overstretches and ‘overuse injur y’. Overstretching seems to be contradictory, as part of being a dancer is to be flexible. Most dancers have a similar mindset. If the leg extension is not long or high enough when performing movements such as a ‘battement’; he or she simply needs to stretch out the tightness. This action can result to severe muscle strain. Consequently, the ‘overuse injury’ can occur simply from working on a specific dance technique or dance movement for too long. Without proper strength in the hamstrings, and rest for the muscles, the hamstrings undergo continuous tension and this can result in tears and fatigue (livestrong.com). There are other factors which increase the likelihood of suffering a hamstring strain or tear injury. Age, flexibility of the hamstring muscle group, as well as tiredness and lack of fitness are namely some of the contributing factors to this injury. The hamstring strains or tear can be graded according to the severity of the injury. Grade 1 consists of minor tears within the muscle. A grade 2 is a partial tear in the muscle and grade 3 is a severe or complete rupture of the muscle (sportsinjuryclinic.net). The symptoms of a grade 1 hamstring strain are; the injured dancer may feel a slight pull or tightness and minimal swelling in the posterior thigh. Consequently, he or she will be aware of slight discomfort when walking. Following on, grade 2 hamstring strains or tears may be associated with occasional sudden twinges of pain when producing a movement. As a result, gait will be affected and limping may be present. Moreover, flexing and applying pressure to the knees may cause pain. Therefore, a dancer with grade 2 hamstring strain or tears might be unable to fully straighten the knees. Finally, walking will be severely impaired in a grade 3 hamstring tear resulting to the need of walking aids. A dancer will feel severe pain particularly when producing a knee flexion. In addition to all that is mention, a grade 2 and 3 hamstring strain or tear may indirectly affect one’s posture. This is a result of impulses transferred by the nervous system from the hamstring muscle group to the Central Nervous System (CNS). The CNS consists of the spinal cord and the brain, transmitting impulses from the spinal cord to the brain. There are 5 pairs of sacral plexus in the spinal cord, containing four sacral nerves, which branch out, supplying sensory to the muscles attached to the pelvis, buttocks, and part of the lower limbs. The sciatic nerve, which branches out from the sacral plexus, is the longest nerve of the body and is responsible for the pain associated with the hamstring group muscle. â€Å"The nerve supply becomes impeded by excess pressure or damage and pain, is experienced in the hips and buttocks down through the knee to the ankle.† (An Holistic Guide to Anatomy and Physiology, 2006, pg.213). It is vitally important that treatment for a pulled hamstring starts immediately. The most important phase for treatment is the first 48 hours post-injury. Treatment of hamstring strains or tears will vary depending on the type of injury, its severity, and the needs and expectations of the patient. However, treatment can be generally divided into two types; Non-Surgical treatment and Surgical Treatment. Most hamstring strains heal very well with simple non-surgical treatments methods such as R.I.C.E, an acronym for Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation. A dancer who is experiencing a hamstring strain should take rest, and avoid activities that strain the muscle group. In addition, he or she should apply cold packs several times a day on the straining area but not directly onto the skin. Also, the patient should wear an elastic band for compression to avoid more swelling and blood lost. To reduce swelling, he or she should recline, elevating the leg above the heart level. After R.I.C.E, dancers who wish to rehabilitate from a hamstring strain should get physical therapy treatments to restore the range of motion and strength. Surgical treatment is most often performed for tendon avulsion injuries, where the tendon has pulled completely away from the bone. Like treatments, the duration for a full recovery from a hamstring strain and tear injury vary depending on its severity. A grade 1 injury will probably take seven to ten days, a grade 2 injury will take four to six weeks however a grade 3 injury can take up to 4 or more months. â€Å"One of the most important methods of preventing a pulled hamstring is to warm-up correctly. This has been scientifically proven to reduce the risk of hamstring strain.†(sportsinjuryclinic.net). Warm-ups should gradually increase in intensity. Moreover, most dancers often fail to understand the importance of strengthening exercises. Dancers focus too much on stretching the muscle, lengthening but making it week and unable to support the range of motion when dancing. Boyd Bender, a physical therapist for the Pacific Northwest Ballet stated to strengthen the hamstring muscle group, dancers should also strengthen the quadriceps muscle group. This is because these muscle groups work in concert. If trained correctly, the strength ratio should be 60% of quadriceps muscle group and 40% of hamstring muscle group, with each muscle group supporting and complementing each other to prevent injuries. (findarticles.com). On top of dance technique classes, dancers should also add Pilates and Gyrotonic class for dynamics of stretch, strength, and movement for a well-rounded regimen. Dancers should also include stretching bands when practicing technique. With the use of stretching bands like Thera-Band, dancers not only refine their technique but also strengthen their muscle groups. The body is the instrument for a dancer. Every dancer should aim to achieve optimum capacity of his or her body through warm-ups, body conditioning, technique classes, stretching and cool-down. In conclusion, dancers should never work their body recklessly. Like all instruments, it should be refined and well taken care of.

Difficulties Arabic Students Face In English Language Learning

Difficulties Arabic Students Face In English Language Learning In educational settings the language is both the medium and content of instruction. Academic success is dependent on proficiency of spoken and written forms of the language used for instruction (Shatz and Wilkinson 2010: 55). Introduction Next to the United States, the United Kingdom receives the biggest number of international students in the world. In 2009, 13 percent of the total undergraduate population enrolled in the UK were international students (UK Council for International Student Affairs 2009). More specifically, college entrants from Saudi Arabia increased rapidly by 42.2 percent from 3,535 in 2008 to 5,205 in 2009 (Times Higher Education 2010). This dramatic rise of the Arabic international student cohort in the UK requires immediate attention especially in relation to the academic adjustments these students make in the school environment. One of the most significant adjustments for Arabic international students is learning the English language, a phenomenon driven by the demands of globalisation and the now widespread use of English as a second language in the educational curriculum even in Arab countries (Tahaineh 2010). While the process of English language learning among Arab students within their hom e countries has gained much academic attention (Khatib, 2000; Tahaineh, 2010; Ghaith and Diab 2008), not enough research focus has been made on the experiences of Arabic international students in the UK. What is known today is too scant to be applied practically in policymaking or in educational practice. This dissertation explores two main points, firstly, it highlights how little we know about the difficulties that Arabic international students face in learning the English language and secondly, it calls for the need to undertake more robust empirical work on the growing Arabic international student cohort in the UK. This mixed methods research will be a valuable contribution to UK educators in helping Arabic students learn effectively at the same time achieving institutional goals as well as meeting the educational expectations and needs of Arabic students in the UK. Research question This dissertation aims to answer the central question, What difficulties do Arabic students in the UK face when learning the English language? There are two sub-questions proposed which will guide the outcomes of this research. What issues do Arabic students face in English language learning? The literature review suggests that the difficulties Arabic international students may face when learning the English language are multi-faceted. It may involve basic structural differences between Arabic and English (Shabbir Bughio 2003), cultural issues (Elyas and Picard 2010), motivation and self-esteem (Al-Tamimi Shuib 2009), and social issues (Shammas 2009). What strategies do they use to overcome the barriers identified? After discovering the issues that Arabic international students face in English language learning, it is important to uncover the strategies that they employ in order to cope with the difficulties faced. Rationale and context The context of this proposed dissertation is of a general and personal nature. ESL literacy has always been an ongoing academic interest of the researcher. While in the past, learning the English language was viewed as a betrayal of the mother tongue for most Arabic students, the demands of free market globalisation has prompted a renewed vigour among Arab universities and Arabic students to become proficient in the English language. On a personal level, I have always been concerned with the skills of Arabic international students in reading and writing. Studying the English literacy experiences of these students will contribute to an increase in our understanding as to what strategies could help Arabic students obtain English proficiency and attain their educational goals. At the same time, it will also address the gap in literature which can inform the policymaking and institutional practice of UK universities in meeting the needs and expectations of Arabic international English learners. By describing the experiences of Saudi students in L2 literacy experience, we can begin to draft useful conclusions, implications, and recommendations to contribute to second language acquisition and proficiency in general and ESL literacy in particular. Literature review A preliminary literature review reveals significant themes related to the difficulties that Saudi international students experience in learning the English language. 1. Basic structural differences of Arabic and English The most common difficulty experienced in English language learning and proficiency among Arab students lies in the basic structural differences between the mother tongue and the second language. For instance, Arabic writing does not use capitalisation and uses different rules in punctuation from English (Shabbir Bughio 2003). Spelling is also a problem since in Arabic, there is only one letter per sound so the spelling part is much more challenging in English. A study revealed that students struggle with spelling silent alphabets located in the middle of English words such as half or knowledge. Pronunciation of English words is also problematic since Arab speakers often use Arabic phonetics to pronounce words (Salebi 2004). As a result, words like stupid are pronounced istobbid while pregnant is pronounced brignent (Shabbir Bughio 2003). The use of commas and conjunctions is also another difficulty for Arabic students because the usage is different in Arabic and English contexts ( Rababah 2002). The same is true on the use of English prepositions; due to the varied nature and usage of prepositions in English, many Arabic students opt to translate each Arabic preposition in English (Shabbir Buhgio 2003). Kambal (1980) documented major syntactic errors in the compositions of Arab students in the Sudanese University particular in verb formation, subject-verb agreement, and use of tenses. 2. Motivation in learning EFL Motivation has been an established predictor of success EFL outcomes (Al-Tamimi Shuib 2006). Consequently, a learners attitude towards the second language affects his or her outcomes in English language learning. Gardner and Lambert (1972:3) explained that a learners motivation to learn is reflected in the latters attitudes towards English speakers as well as towards the English language itself. In fact, empirical research has pointed to a learners general attitude towards knowledge as an influential variable in second language acquisition and proficiency (Arkoudis 2003). Moreover, self-esteem has been shown to be a significant predictor in writing achievement among Arabic secondary students (Al-Hattab 2006). Beliefs on the English language are mediated by culture and social characteristics (Ely 1986). This means that not all people hold uniform epistemological beliefs about L2 language acquisition and that our appreciation of the knowledge process is dependent upon our different co ntexts. Some argue however that while motivation and attitudes towards the L2 language is important, it is not a sufficient condition in language proficiency (Ely 1986). In a survey of Arabic students in Australia, general attitudes towards the English language were positive; most believed that English symbolised technological advancement and modernity (Suleiman 1983). In another study, it was found that positive attitudes toward English language learning were related to EFL outcomes (Ghaith and Diab 2008). 3. Cultural issues Culture plays an important role in the English language learning process, especially in relation to language instruction (Elyas and Picard 2010). In Saudi Arabia, classroom instruction is delivered in a different manner from Western schools. The classroom is a place where the teacher is an established head and the students role is defined in terms of quietness of loving to listen (Jamjoom 2009, as cited Elyas and Picard 2010). Teacher-student relationships in the Saudi context are feudal; teachers and instructors occupy a high tier in the classroom and so-called student-centred pedagogy is not a common practice (Gallagher 1989). The implication of this is that most Saudi students are not accustomed to interactive teaching processes, one that cultivates proficiency in the English language. Arabic students only learn English from formal instruction and the classroom itself does not provide a venue wherein they could practice their English communication skills (Rababah 2002). This class room acculturation creates potential problems in the context of English language learning in a UK university where classroom interaction is a popular teaching model. Most Arabic students become unsociable in class, do not recite as often as needed, and speak English only when directed formally (Ghaith and Diab 2008). Moreover, teacher attitudes and behaviours towards Saudi students may also count against EFL. Cross-cultural differences have been shown to affect classroom sociability of Arabic students (Rababah 2002). 4. Social issues Alienation in the university setting has been found to influence the academic outcomes of Arabic international students in the USA (Shammas 2009) particularly after the 9/11 terror attacks. The same alienation was reported by Arabic students when the school climate became hostile in some universities within the UK (Rich and Troudi 2006). The level of integration that Arabic international students experience in their universities is helpful in enhancing motivation to learn the English language (Shammas 2009). Feelings of isolation due to the loss of social capital increases sociability among Arabic international students and may result to loss of self-esteem and motivation. Those who are able to renew their social capital by connecting with new friends Arabic or not have a greater chance of being successful in being proficient in the English language. Research approach Empirical work examining the processes of second language acquisition and the effectiveness of strategies focused on learning English as a second language has utilised both quantitative and qualitative research approaches (Ghaith and Diab 2008; Al-Hattab 2006; Rabab-ah 2002). This study proposes a mixed methods approach integrating both qualitative and quantitative elements to more adequately explore the English language learning process among Arabic international students in the UK. Considered a bridge between the quantitative and qualitative realms of research, mixed methods research draws upon the strengths of both paradigms to generate a more complete and thorough investigation of a topic or phenomenon (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 2004). To this end, mixed methods research supposes that the two research paradigms can be reconciled, maximising the strengths of both while minimising their weaknesses at the same time (Tashakkori and Teddlie 2003). In deciding what research approach best suits the purposes of this study, I considered two ontological positions constructivist and positivist on the topic. Firstly, I consider that Arabic students are differently situated and construct their realities from their own experiences and values. In this regard, there is no one version of reality that could be gleaned (Denzin and Lincoln 1994) on how Arabic international students experience English language learning. Secondly, however, I believe that it is possible to establish what a causal relationship (Creswell 2003) or the particular factors predict English language proficiency among Arabic students in general. In other words, we can determine what specific difficulties can influence English language proficiency among Arabic students. From a pragmatic point of view, both ontological positions are useful in this investigation, hence, a mixed methods paradigm. Why use a stand-alone paradigm when you can use two paradigms and in the pro cess, capture the phenomenon being studied more fully? Mixed methods research is a methodologyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ philosophical framework, method, and techniques of data collection and analysis which combines both quantitative and qualitative processes throughout the entire research cycle (Creswell and Plano Clark 2007:5). The benefits of conducting mixed methods research are three-fold: 1) it allows a holistic investigation of a phenomenon; 2) it enables a macro- and micro- investigation of the phenomenon; and 3) it has validating capacity of quantitative with qualitative methods and vice versa (Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2004). This study proposes a research approach consisting of two phases. The first phase is the quantitative phase; the goal is to determine what specific issues Arabic students face in learning the English language and how these variables are related to each other. The second phase builds on the results of the quantitative phase and explains the outcomes more fully. The quantitative phase will utilise a web-based survey questi onnaire to be followed by face-to-face interviews for the qualitative phase. The idea of this research technique is that by integrating both numerical data (survey questionnaire) and textual data (interviews), the difficulties Arabic international students phase in English language learning can be captured more completely and comprehensively. Research Design There are several variations in design to a mixed methods study. Three issues are considered in the selection of the specific mixed methods design for this particular research: priority, implementation, and integration (Creswell and Plano Clark 2007). Priority specifies which method is emphasised; implementation identifies whether data collection and analysis is done sequentially (different stages) or concurrently (parallel stages); and integration defines the connectedness between the results of the two phases. This study uses the sequential explanatory design to investigate the experiences of Arabic international students in English language learning. Sequential explanatory design A sequential explanatory design is chosen. The data collection and analysis will consist of two phases (Creswell, 2003; Onwuegbuzie and Teddlie 2003). The first phase will use a web-based survey questionnaire to be answered by a manageable random sample of Arabic international students enrolled in one UK university. Data collected will be analyzed through descriptive statistics and chi-square. The second phase of the study will proceed after the completion of the first phase. It will build on the findings of the first phase and use individual semi-structured interviews of five Arabic international students. The goal of the second phase is provide a more in-depth explanation of the difficulties experienced by Arabic students and the strategies they use to overcome these difficulties. Through the integration of data from both the quantitative and qualitative phase, the results will be refined and the phenomenon explored in a more holistic manner. More specifically, this explanatory mix ed methods research uses the follow-up explanations variant in an attempt to understand more fully the process in which Arabic students learn English in foreign universities. The follow-up explanations model is selected because the qualitative phase means to explain and expand on quantitative results (Creswell 2003: 43). The priority phase of this study is the qualitative phase because of its capability to provide a more complete picture of the phenomenon being considered. Using a pragmatic ontological position which values positivist and interpretivist assumptions, the study uses two general instruments and triangulation methods to establish validity and reliability of research findings. Phase 1: Quantitative (Survey questionnaires) A self-constructed online survey questionnaire will be used to gather data on the difficulties experienced by Arabic students in English language learning. Items in the questionnaire will be drawn from the literature review and will measure difficulties in five aspects: 1) structural adjustments from Arabic to English (spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc.), 2) motivation, 3) cultural issues, and 4) social issues. After the selection of participants, a URL will be sent via email to participants advising them to read the consent form and to indicate their compliance. The survey will also be available on Facebook and other social networking sites. After gathering data, results will be analyzed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. Phase 2: Qualitative (Face-to-face interviews) After the first phase of data collection and data analysis, in-depth interviews will be scheduled with six Arabic international students in order to gather information that will further explain the results of the survey questionnaire. A semi-structured interview guide will be developed in order to allow the participants to discuss their answers in a more flexible manner. The semi-structured nature of the interview guide will also allow the researcher to clarify or ask follow-up questions that can further refine the data. Interviews will be audiotaped with the participants consent and transcribed immediately afterwards. Qualitative analysis will be used to gather recurring themes from the interview data. Validity and Reliability To establish the validity and reliability of the outcomes of this study, content validity and triangulation through multiple sources will be used. To establish content validity, the survey instrument will be evaluated by a panel of specialists. Multiple sources such as documents and academic papers will also be requested from interviewees. Member checking will be done to verify the accuracy of the transcribed interviews. Ethical Issues The following ethical considerations are identified. Institutional requirements will be met before data collection. Permission to conduct the study will be obtained by securing approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University. The researcher will complete the ethics form and wait for approval before beginning the collection of data. Consent will be secured. An informed consent will be drafted to explain to participants the purposes and objectives of the study as well as the rights of participants regarding confidentiality and voluntarism. The same form will be attached to the online survey as proof of compliance with ethical requirement for research. Anonymity and confidentiality of information will be guaranteed. Procedures will be done to protect the rights of human subjects. Every completed questionnaire will be coded in order to hide the identity of participants. For the personal interviews conducted, each participant will be informed that the interview will be audiotaped for documentation. Transcript of the interviews will use pseudonyms instead of real names. Data storage requirements will also be complied with. Transcripts and hard drives will be secured in a locked cabinet to be destroyed after the study is published. Bias will be bracketed to minimise prejudicial interpretation of data. Ethics requires the researcher to fully disclose any potential conflicts of interest. Bias is acknowledged to arise from data collection until the final phases of the study. Risk of bias will be minimised through bracketing and a written reflection log to trace subjectivities. Research schedule 2011 Activities May Completion of dissertation proposal June IRB form completed and passed July Additional literature review Survey questionnaire developed August Methodology chapter finalised Survey questionnaire piloted and evaluated Revisions to questionnaire finalised September Selection of participants October First phase of data gathering Analysis of results quantitative phase November Write up of results and advising December Refining of literature review Drafting of interview guide and approval 2012 January Selection of interviewees Conduct of interviews Transcription and qualitative analysis February Integration of findings from Phase 1 and Phase 2 Meet with supervisor Pass first draft of findings and conclusions March Check references. Finalise draft. April Final proofreading and revisions. Send to binders. May Submit bound copies by May 2012. Reflective commentary Writing this dissertation proposal has not only been a significant educational experience for me; it was also a reflexive opportunity. I was given an avenue with which to consider my own perspectives about obtaining higher education in a foreign university and the experiences which have so far brought me to the level I am now situated. Preparing the literature review was the most rewarding part of all because it enabled me to acknowledge the multifaceted and complex nature of the English language learning process. Simply put, acquiring a second language is not a simple feat. It is influenced by multiple factors and influences. While I was able to gather the most significant themes associated with English language learning among Arabic international students, I look forward to constructing the more detailed literature review in the future.

Warriors dont cry :: essays research papers

Title Navy to Limit Sonar Testing Thought to Hurt Sea Mammals Paper New York Times Authors THE ASSOCIATED PRESS Summary this article comes from San Francisco and is about how the Navy has agreed to limit the testing grounds the testing of a new sonar system designed to track down enemy submarines. The Navy finally agreed after there were a couple months of protest for the harm of marine life. The protest was about the concern of harming marine life . With all the limit’s the Navy has the Navy agrees to test the system in about 14 million square miles in the ocean and the limit will be a million square miles of remote ocean around the Mariana Islands. Andrew Wetzel a lawyer in the Natural Resources Defense Council said that the Mariana Islands was the least affective of Ocean the Navy could have. This wonderful sonar system can send signals hundreds of miles. It can be as loud as 215 decibels, as much noise as a twin-engine F-15 fighter jet makes when it takes off. This agreement doesn’t stop the navy from using the sonar anywhere in wartime and but limit’s the training gro und of the sonar. The judge ordered all discussions between the environmental group and the Navy to not to be mentioned. The Natural Resources Defense Council said Navy sonar used in March 2000 has caused about 16 whales and 2 dolphins to beach themselves on islands in the Bahamas. Eight whales died, and scientists found bleeding around their brains and ear bones, injuries consistent with exposure to loud noise. Critique This article is very important because the Navy has to train with their equipment but marine life cannot be harmed. The Navy has made the same decision I would have made to limit grounds for harming marine life but still training. This was a very hard decision to make because the Navy doesn’t want to kill animals but they have to just to train. I didn’t find this article interesting nor boring I found it hard to agree or disagree with. A call to battle Comment: I read Warrior's Don't Cry for a book report last year. As a high school student, I had heard very little about the integration of Central High School, and living in a predominantly white suburban community, knew very little about the Civil Rights Movement beyond Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks. Beals' personal account spurred me to learn more about the Movement on my own and to start demanding a 20th century in America class for my Social Studies department.

Child Development Essay -- Child Rearing, Natural Growth

Lareau (2003) reports that social class plays a very important role in a child’s upbringing because it helps determine the way a child will be raised. In Lareau’s (2003) study she came to the conclusion that there were two different patterns of child rearing: concerted cultivation and natural growth. Concerted cultivation is the child rearing method that middle class parents use focusing on not only caring for their child, but developing a personality by enrolling their children in many structured activities and developing language skills (Lareau, 2003). Natural growth is the child-rearing method that working class and poor parents use to raise their children because there is not a lot of time and money for structured activities and long verbal discussions with the children (Lareau, 2003). Families who practice natural growth child rearing practices need to focus on providing the simpler needs of the child like providing shelter, clothing, food, and water therefore unab le to have the structured activities and worry about establishing communication skills. This is important to consider because the way children are raised because this has a social impact. The children that are being raised today will eventually grow up to be a part of their own society; there are social impacts on the current society because of the methods of child-rearing and the consequences that these child-rearing practices are having on children with the way they interact in society, There are benefits and disadvantages to both childrearing methods reported by Lareau (2010) however there are definitive differences in the child’s outcome due to the child’s social class and thus the method the child was raised with. In concerted cultivation children spend a ... ...nd sometimes talk to my extended family I seldom see them or would by any means categorize our relationships as strong kinship ties (Lareau, 2003). This I feel has been an unfortunate result of concerted cultivation because I see how some of my other cousins behave towards each other as they are so close talking everyday and meet several times a week for lunch or dinner. I feel this is sad because while I would love to have stronger ties with my extended family I realize it is not a part of the way I was brought up because of my middleclass child-rearing. The concept of my social connections often being mostly in homogenous age groups as a child is very accurate (Lareau, 2003). Because of the activities I participated in and the area in which I lived and went to school I predominately have friendships through activities with children much like I was at the time.

John Dryden Essay -- essays research papers fc

Quarrel of the Moderns and the Ancients â€Å"Those beauties of the French poesy are such as will raise perfection higher where it is, but are not sufficient to give it where it is not: they are indeed the beauties of a statue but not of a man† (Poesy Abridged). Dryden wrote this essay as a dramatic dialogue with four characters representing four critical positions. The four critical positions are ancients verses moderns, unities, French verses English drama, separation of tragedy and comedy verses tragicomedy and appropriateness of rhyme in drama (Brysons). Neander is in favor of the moderns but he respects the ancients, he also favors English drama while having critical views towards French drama. In â€Å"An Essay of Dramatic Poesy† Dryden used character to represent four critical positions, but he cleverly disguised himself as one of them Throughout Dryden’s â€Å"An Essay of Dramatic Poesy† Neander is believed to represent Dryden’s point of view on the different critical issues discu ssed. Living from 1631 to 1700 John Dryden was the leading literary figure of the Restoration (â€Å"John Dryden† Encarta). Dryden was an accomplished poet, playwright and critic. Speaking English, Latin and Greek Dryden was also a successful translator. Writing â€Å"Heroic Stanzas,† a poem commemorating the death of Cromwell, Dryden secured a place in London’s literary circles. After converting to Christianity under the Christian rule of James II, Dryden was appointed poet laureate where he later lost the title ...

English Euphemism Essay

Euphemism, as a common linguistic phenomenon in world culture, is widely used in every social class and field. English euphemism, as one of many euphemisms existing in the world, has its own deep origin, which include both the religious origin and the historical, literary origin. This thesis will try to discuss the origin of English euphemism from every aspect of religion, race, politics, literary, and history. Language reflects life, and is always closely related to the society. During the communication, due to some certain restriction of behavior and morality, people tend to use euphemism-used as a kind of lubrication, making the harsh, indelicate words sound tactful and pleasant. English euphemism plays a very important role in people’s social communication. This paper will also expound the social communicative function of English euphemism from the three aspects: evasive function, polite function, and cosmetic function. Having a good understanding of the origin and social function of English euphemism and the English language Culture can avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication . [Key Words] origin; communicative function; evasion; cosmetic function; politeness [Abstract] euphemisms prevalent in the language of the world’s cultural phenomenon, it is widely used in all social strata and fields. Euphemism as a euphemism in one of the many, has its deep roots produced, in which packets of religion and politics, but also literature and history. This paper attempts to religion, race, politics, literature, history, in a bid to explore the emergence of English Euphemisms source. Language reflects life, and always closely linked with social, conversation in the language, due to a certain code of conduct and Ethics constraints, people often use the euphemism —- the ‘lubricant’, making harsh, non – polite euphemism becomes so pleasurable. It is in people’s social communication played an important role. This function of its taboo, courtesy functions and capabilities in three areas to cover up the English language Euphemism illustrates the social communicative functions. Euphemism by fully understanding the origins of English and its social communicative function, and further understand the English language and culture, in order to avoid social communication in the various conflicts. [Keywords:] origin;  communicative function; taboo; politeness; cover 1.Introduction Euphemism is a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept. Every language has its own euphemism, so does English. It is deeply rooted in social life and has a great influence on social communication. As an indispensable and natural pArt of English language, English euphemism has attracted people’s attention for a long time. Since Euphemism was coined, it has played a very important role in people’s communication. The communication without euphemism is unimaginable. Euphemism is used like lubrication, which makes the communication go on smoothly. This thesis will have an overview of the origin of English euphemism, and state its social communicative function. English euphemism as a linguistic concept, it has close relationships with the western culture, and it truly reflects the life and values of English people and their history. Euphemism is a particularly good medium for access to the force of language that has provided an effective approach to understanding the human mind. The study of English euphemism can help us understand the western Culture and promote the international Development because euphemism is widely used in international negotiations. So there is a great need for us to study English euphemism, including: its origin, its social function, etc. 2. The definitions of English euphemism Euphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. Nearly in every language, there are some disgusting words, which make people feel embarrassed. In the process of communication, the unsuitable or too direct words will make people feel uncomfortable, even angry. Then there is a great need for us to use a tactful way to express emotion, exchange ideas. That is to say, to use a pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases take the place of tabooed words. It is known that euphemism is a form of language intentionally created in social relation to achieve ideal communication. Without them any language would seem to be vulgar and rude, void of politeness and vividness to some extent. As a common communication in the process of people using language, euphemism is an important way for people to coordinate the social relationships. Like a kind of lubrication, euphemism enables people to express what cannot be uttered directly and ensures communication to be  carried smoothly. It is a language Strategy in civilized society for avoiding taboo. It is unimaginable if the communication is without euphemism. The word ‘euphemism’ was derived from the Greek word ‘euphemismos’, which means ‘fair speech’. The prefix ‘eu’ means ‘good, sound well’ and ‘pheme’ means ‘saying’ or ‘speech’. And thus the literal meaning of ‘euphemism’ is ‘to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner’. That is to say, euphemism is used as an alternative to unpleasant expression, in order to avoid possible lose of face, either one’s own face or through going offense, that of the audience, or some of third of party. This unpleasant expression may be tabooed, fearsome, or for some other reasons that speakers can’t or intend not to use some certain expression directly on some occasion. ‘In Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language is’ the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted ‘. Rawson Blunt, a British writer, defined euphemism as’ a good favorable interpretation of a bad word.†[1 ] ‘Encyclopedia Britannica (1994) also defines euphemism as’ a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms†[2] From the above mentioned, we could clearly see that euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression. The speakers use words or expressions as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural things. It is one form of language and a linguistic phe nomenon 3.The origins of English euphemism 3.1 The religious origin of English euphemism The earliest English euphemisms come from ‘taboo’. The word ‘taboo’ comes from Togan, a kind of Polynesian. It indicates evasive language or action. [3] The emergence of English euphemism is to meet the need of avoiding taboos. In primitive society, people can’t explain such things as ailment and some supernatural phenomena. ‘People have confusion between the name of the things and things themselves. The name is viewed as an extension of things. Just as the idiom says’ Speak of devil and he appears ‘. Naturally the words or phrases related to such things become taboos.’ [4] In the ancient times, people had blind faith in ghosts and Gods they respected. They whispered and even feared them so they did not dare to address their  names directly. They think it profane to name God. Therefore the names of gods become the earliest taboos. To speak name of gods was to evoke the divinity whose power then had to be confronted. Such dangerous practices were reserved for priests skilled in negotiating with the supernatural. So the usual way to avoid is to employ euphemisms. Therefore, for the religious need, a lot of euphemisms about religion emerged. For example, in order not to desecrate God, people in English-speaking country always use some other name for God instead of calling directly, such as ‘Adonai, the Almighty, Caesar’s Cruth, the Creater, Dod, Gad, Land, Lawks, Lawd.’ [5] The opposite side of god is devil, which is more terrible for people. When people refer to them, they tend to use such euphemisms to replace: D, the Big D, the Evil one, the Black one, the Goodman, Jesse, Old boy, Our father, Lord of lords, King of kings, the Light of the world, etc. [6] From the above mentioned, we can find that religion brings many euphemistic terms in the religious matter, especially the naming and addressing of God to the language. 3.2 The racial and national origins of English euphemism It is known to all, the phenomenon of racial discrimination is deeply rooted in America in which ‘equal opportunity’ is flattered by American white people as an equal right enjoyed by everyone. Due to the pressure of social public opinion, although some whites discriminate the black from their heart, they will not expose this kind of prejudice in public. Meanwhile, few people dare to humiliate and persecute blacks publicly for no reason at all. In other words, the way of discrimination becomes tactful. There are many euphemisms emerging for this reason. In the 1930s, ‘nigger’ is still a neutral noun in England, and has no meaning of humiliating blacks. But since this word has the obvious meaning of discriminating the blacks, most of people in England and Americans use some other euphemistic words, such as ‘colored black’ instead. When talking about some other races, it does not often use the direct words that are related to color. People often use some euphemistic expression, such as the geographic name. 3.3 Historical, literary and Political origins of English euphemism From the time the Normans conquered England in 1066, English has emerged many euphemisms. At that time, the main reason to use euphemism is that the language used by the conquered is often disparaged, and is thought as gross language. The upper  class surely doesn ‘t want to lower their status to use such words. In order to avoid using such gross words, they tend to use’ the elegant words’, which originated from Latin. And these words were mixed into English gradually. There are also many euphemisms in literary works. For example, in Hamlet, Shakespeare use the expression ‘The undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler returns’ (there has never been a mystery travelers to come back off the country) to express his great sympathy for Hamlet . [7] The famous American writer Mark Twain use ‘release’ to express ‘die’ in his work The Adventure of Tom Sawyer. Besides, politics is a fertile area for the appearance and growth of English euphemism, which is cosmetic in expression but deceptive in nature. Euphemisms of this kind are always consciously and deliberately. The cosmetic euphemism can be easily found in American English. Government’s discussion of the Vietnam War was saturated with euphemisms. Villages burned and inhabitants imprisoned were ‘Pacifications’; the war itself was not a war but a ‘conflict’, the ‘bombing’ becomes ‘logistical strike’ or ‘close air support’, and ‘killing’ becomes ‘wasting the enemy’. These euphemisms are used to deceive and to hide the dirty business of war . [8] The use of such Political euphemisms helps government to beautify the action and prevent people from taking any anti-government action. So in order to satisfy the Political needs, many euphemisms come to exist. 4.The social communicative function of English euphemism From the perspective of language communication, euphemism functions to avoid taboos, to show politeness and conceal feelings. Thanks to euphemism, it is easy for people to accept the things that are likely to make others feel embarrassed or unhappy. It is people’s general character to express their ideas as mildly and tactfully as possible. Euphemism helps people to reach this goal. From the moment euphemism came into existence, it has played a very important role in our daily communication, and help establish a good relationship between human beings and even strengthen the social stability. Euphemism are motivated by the desire not to be offensive. People use them to show their politeness, to avoid being offensive and to meet the psychological and beneficial needs of both speakers and hearers in communication. But sometimes they are used to conceal or cover something. Accordingly, euphemism serves three basic communicative functions: evasive  function, polite function and cosmetic function. 4.1 The evasive function of English euphemism The evasive function of euphemism is to evade using taboos, enabling the speaker to talk about tabooed things freely. These tabooed things are believed to be dangerous to certain individuals, or to the society as a whole, or to be disgusting and unpleasant, and cause fear. Such tabooed things include: disease, disabilities, death, sex, body excretion and body elimination process, etc. People can use euphemisms to talk about what cannot be talked directly. Reposted elsewhere in the paper for free download 4.1.1 In terms of disease and disabilities People yearn for health, and fear for specific disease and every sort of disability. So people always use tactful way to express them. For example, sexual or venereal disease such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, ADIS, etc. Are called ‘social disease’, ‘communicative disease’, etc. in English. Besides, disabilities are very sensitive area in every culture. In English, ‘the disabled, the handicapped, the inconvenienced, the invalid, auditory impaired, hard of hearing, talk with one’s fingers’, etc. are put into service. [9] So euphemism plays a very important function in our social communication. Without it, we sometimes cannot continue our talk. 4.1.2 In terms of death Death is an inevitable stage at the end of life’s journey. It is common Experience of human beings. Yet it has been the source of fear-fear of the loss of loved ones; fear of the end of one’s life; fear of the actual process of dying. Therefore, all these fears, worries, and unpleasant feelings combined lead to verbal taboo of death. Euphemisms concerning death are extremely rich. In English, there are more than seventy euphemisms for ‘death’, including ‘to be gone, to be gone to a better world, to be with God, to breath one’s last, to close one’s day, to depArt from the world forever, to depArt to God, to fall asleep, join the great majority, pass away, etc. [10 ] No matter why this word is used in a certain language, people always tend to use less harsh words 4.1.3 In terms of sex, body  excretion and body elimination process Words relating to sex, procreation and excretion are highly restricted to mention because they may evoke disgusting responses of people. Verbal taboo on them is probably motivated by the intuitive disaster, shame. People all have certain feelings of which they are so ashamed that they don ‘t like to admit even to themselves. In people’s daily life or in some formal occasion, if the talk or discussion refers to something about drainage, people will try to avoid using vulgar language. They tend to use some implied or neutral words to make conversation comfortable. For ordinary people, the safest way to avoid mentioning these things that they have to mention in many circumstances is to use another expression-euphemism to replace the true name of such a thing. For example, in English there are many elegant expressions for ‘going to WC’, such as: to wash one’s hand, to spend a penny, to go and see one’s aunt, to answer the call of nature, because nature calls, etc. [11] ‘The topic concerning being pregnant is touchy because it tends to arouse the association with sexual behaviors.’ To beat round bushes’ is very necessary, such as’ with child ‘,’ anticipating ‘,’ excepting ‘for’ pregnant ‘, etc. [12] Talking about sexual intercourse is taboo. Expressions relating to sex have heavily been veiled for the purpose of avoiding awkwardness and offense. So people use euphemistic words to talk about it. For example, people evade saying ‘hip’ directly which is replaced with ‘buttock’, ‘bottom’, ‘one’s thing’, and ‘secret parts’ donates sex organs of both males and females. 4.1.4 In terms of old age English and Chinese have different feelings about ‘old age’. A Chinese is proud of being old, whereas a westerner will feel irritated and even insulted at mentioning his oldness. In English culture, people do not describe others as or to be described as’ old ‘because the old, who no longer work, are ignored by society. Therefore, people create’ the second childhood golden years, senior citizen, gray hair, mature golden age ‘when they refer to’ old age ‘in which it attempts to conceal the fact of becoming old and avoid arousing old people’s sad feeling of aging. [14] 4.2 The polite function of English euphemism. Politeness is another important function that euphemisms serve in the social  life. Politeness is the symbol of human’s civilization and one of the important principles guiding people’s activities. As a kind of significant social activity, language activity must observe this principle, too. When we have to talk something unpleasant, we should choose euphemistic way to express in order not to hurt others. Being polite is a reasonable action that anyone who is keen on face-saving will take. The polite function of euphemism is tried to avoid being harsh or impolite in the communication. In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions. For instance, when a teacher comments on a student’s moral conducts and school work in front of the student or his or her parent, he or she should report the fact on one hand, and on the other hand should take into consideration the student’s psychological endurance and the paren t’s face. So the euphemistic way to express might be ‘The student is a bit slow for his or her age’ instead of ‘The student is stupid ‘. [15] The polite function of English euphemism is embodied in every occupational language. Occupational discrimination gives people pressure and emotional irritation. Although euphemisms cannot uproot this kind of phenomenon, at least, they can give them some psychological comfort by upgrading of career name. Therefore, ‘ engineer, manager, etc. ‘have become more and more fashionable.’ Dustman ‘is changed to’ sanitary engineer ‘;’ mechanic ‘to’ automobile engineer ‘,’ gardener ‘to’ landscape architect ‘,’ shoemaker ‘to’ shoe rebuilder ‘[16] In English, there are many adjectives about people’s appearance, such as’ good looking, handsome, pretty, charming, attractive’, etc. They are all commendatory words. When talking about someone who is not pretty, we cannot use ‘ugly’ or ‘awfully’. We had better use some euphemisms such as ‘plain, ordinary, not particularly looking’, etc. instead of them. So euphemism’s polite function can save people’s face in their process of communication. It is so important that we cannot neglect it. 4.3 The cosmetic function of English euphemism Besides the evasive and polite function, euphemism has the cosmetic function. This kind of euphemism is usually used in the government, military, politics and commerce. It refers to using good words to beautify things, which are not beautiful in reality and make the thing be more persuaded and acceptable. Because euphemism has the nature of vagueness, to some extent,  it is deceptive. Traditionally speaking, euphemism plays a positive role in social life. Using it, people can avoid some embarrassed and ungracious occasion. But just as every coin has two sides, euphemism has no exception. Using it suitably can coordinate social relationships, but abusing it will mislead the public, will cover up the essence of things. For example, in modern Western society, the poor is called as’ the needy ‘, later it was changed to’ the culturally deprived ‘, then to’ the underprivileged ‘, at last to’ the disadvantaged ‘. So it will confuse peopl e that this country is so rich that there is no poor people at all. Firstly, the government and the military often use them to disguise the reality from truth. They describe ‘Economic crisis’ as ‘recession’ or ‘depression’; ‘attack’ as ‘active defense’. [17] At the beginning of 20th century , the relationship between labor and capital become strained, and the agitation of striking became a serious social problem. In order to hide the fact, politicians call the strained labor-capital relationship as ‘industrial climate’, striking as ‘industrial action’. If the negotiation between labor and capital is successful, it will be claimed as ‘productive’, on the contrary, it is ‘counter-productive’. [18] Secondly, this kind of euphemism is widely used in commerce. It is often used to play tricks and to deceive the customers. The commercial exaggerates the product’s function and quality. In the same way, the English euphemism is also used to make customers feel pleased . For example, in order to meet the passengers’ sense of dignity, some Airlines call First Class Deluxe Class or Premium Class; Second Class First Class; and Third Class become Business Class, Economic Class, or Tourist Class. Doing like these, it seems that all passengers’ position are promoted. Their purpose is to attract more passengers and gain more profits by using euphemisms in the communication, meanwhile, the customers feel more decent, and it helps customers save face. In short, euphemism of this kind may make an idea more palatable, but they inflate language, reduce precision and often tamper with truth. Some people condemn euphemism as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy, which other consider them useful in the aspect of coordinating social relationships . However, the fact remains that euphemisms are very much a part of the language, and what’s more important for us is not to debate their merits or demerits, but rather to be able to realize that English euphemism can serve for the special social activities  under certain circumstance. 5. Conclusion English euphemism as an essential part of English language, is observed everywhere and widely used in people’s daily communication. On the issue of the origin and social communicative function of English euphemism, this thesis has a tentative exploration. But this kind of exploration is in a state of Development because euphemism is developed all the time. Euphemism roots in every aspect of social life, and is developed with the advancement of society. English euphemism is a mirror of Western Culture in the form of English language. From the moment it was born, it has distinct culture color. Euphemism undoubtedly reflects the inner relationship among the cultural tradition, social values and the form of language. In speech interaction, sometimes, out of politeness or tact, one uses a pleasant, less direct word instead of something unpleasant. Using euphemism is speaker’s active pragmatic Strategy in a certain time and a certain situation. English euphemism promotes the Development of English language, and enriches the vocabularies of English language, giving people a feeling of warm and fresh. In the 21st century, with the development of science and technology, many social problems rise, too. People crave for the gentle, warm and easy understood words. Euphemism emerges ceaselessly just right for meeting this psychological need. As a common communication medium and a rhetoric method, English euphemism will be used wider and wider. Some scholars hold the opinion that it is unreasonable to use euphemism because they have the nature of deceit, especially in politics and government. But we cannot deny the fact that euphemism is very helpful in the process of human communication. Twenty-first century is a period when people of different culture have even more touches with each other. So it is vital for us to have a good understanding of English euphemism. It is unimaginable if the diplomatic negotiation is without euphemism. Using euphemism is a kind of language skill that each of us should master. Bibliography [1] Li Qing. A Tentative Study of English Euphemism-From Pragmatic Perspective. Shandong Normal University, a master’s degree thesis in English Language and Literature. 2003 2.24 P2 [2] Wu Chang-Qi An Analysis of Diplomatic Euphemism from the Perspectives of Cooperative Principles and Politeness Principle. 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